AN INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE
SYSTEMS
A brief look at the systems
that make up the language we use.
LANGUAGE SYSTEMS
Whenever we communicate, we use "everything" we can to ensure that
our 'message' is understood. The table below attempts to capture what constitutes
that "everything":
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COMMUNICATION
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GRAMMAR
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LEXIS
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PHONOLOGY
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DISCOURSE
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PRAGMATIC
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PERSONAL
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| Subsentential (morphology) | Segmental | 'Text' organisation | Context | Affective (e.g.confidence) | |
| Sentential (Syntax) | Supra-segmental | Coherence | Paralinguistics | Strategic competence | |
| Suprasentential (discourse) | Cohesion | Shared knowledge | |||
| Appropriacy | |||||
THE (META)LANGUAGE OF LANGUAGE
Groups of people, from footballers to punk rockers and from lawyers to groupies,
use the language in specific ways that are peculiar to their group. These discourse
communities use a 'common' language with its own terminology and lexicon and
sometimes even its own grammar.
Those of us working with language are no different. When we look at language
we use a grammatical metalanguage that provides us with a discourse (a way of
taking about grammar). This metalanguage serves a referential function by allowing
us to identify concepts with specific terms. This gives us, as teachers, the
ability to better access linguistic references, discuss difficulties with clarity
and thereby hopefully help our students by making the language easier for them
to understand.
As a brief introduction to grammatical metalanguage, look at the two tables
below. If you are unsure about any of the terms, check the reference books listed
at the end.
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GRAMMATICAL METALANGUAGE
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Subsentential Terminology
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Sentential Terminology
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Suprasentential Terminology
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Semantic
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Simple sentences
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Backgrounding & Foregrounding
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Structural
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Compound sentences
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Cohesion
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Functional
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Complex sentences
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Register
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Parts of speech *
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Sentence Moods
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Genre
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Theme / Rheme
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Given / New
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Markedness
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Voice
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*The three criteria of semantic, structural and functional are used when defining the parts of speech, which are typically divided into Major and Minor Parts of Speech as below:
MAJOR PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS
Common Nouns - inlcuding Countable and Uncountable
(or Mass)
Proper Nouns
Collective Nouns
VERBS
Intransitive Verbs
Transitive Verbs
State Verbs (or Stative)
Event Verbs (or Active or Dynamic)
Auxiliary Verbs
Modal Verbs
ADJECTIVES
Gradeable Adjectives
Ungradeable Adjectives
ADVERBS & ADVERBIALS
Manner
Frequency
Time
Place
Degree (or Intensifiers)
Quantity
Focus
Attitude
MINOR PARTS OF SPEECH
PRONOUNS
DETERMINERS
Articles
Demonstratives
Possessive Determiners
Quantifiers
PREPOSITIONS
Place & time
Logical relationships
Case - including Dative & Ablative
CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinating
Subordinating
To track the development of your metalanguage, try starting a terminology dictionary.
REFERENCES
Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999) The Grammar Book. Heinle
& Heinle.
Parrott, M. (2000) Grammar
for English Language Teachers. CUP.
Quirk, R. & Greenbaum, S. (1988) A University Grammar of English.
London: Longman.
Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (1987) A Communicative Grammar of English.
Bolitho, R. & Tomlinson. (1989) Discover English
Swan, M. (1980) Practical English Usage. OUP.
Lewis, M. (1986) The English Verb. Hove: LTP.
Bygate, M., Tonkyn, A. & Williams, E. (1994) Grammar and the Language
Teacher. London, Prentice Hall.
Davis, P. & Rinvolucri, M. (1995) More Grammar Games. CUP.
Ur, P. (1988) Grammar Practice Activities: A Practical Guide for Teachers.
CUP.
Swan, M. & Smith, B. (1987) Learner English. CUP.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd Edition).
London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. (1976) Cohesion in English. London:
Longman.