APPROACHES TO READING
This introduction to reading skills is best discussed and worked through
with two or three colleagues. It aims to generate discussion on the key issues
in reading we need to consider as well as giving readers the opportunity to
pick one another's activity closets for those real gems we all have tucked
away.
Reading is an active skill which involves inferencing, guessing, predicting
etc. It also has, more often than not, a communicative function. We rarely
answer questions after reading a text except in a language class, but we do
write answers to letters, follow directions, choose restaurants and holidays,
solve problems and compare the information to our previous knowledge or the
knowledge of others.
Do you think your students are effective readers? Why?
Or are they ineffective readers? Why?
EFFECTIVE READERS
A familiarity with effective and ineffective reading strategies can help the
teacher look for effective reading behaviours in learners, encourage wider
use of these strategies, and be on the lookout for learners using less effective
strategies. An effective reader is one who can select the correct strategy
for the purpose and text. Studies have shown that most effective readers:
· discover the distinctive features in letters, words and meaning
· try to identify meaning rather than letters or words
· use their knowledge of the world
· eliminate unlikely alternatives through inference and prediction
· have a clearly defined purpose
· locate topic sentences
· distinguish main points from subordinate ones, and fact from opinion
· are aware of cohesion and reference
· are aware of explicit and implied relationships between sentences and paragraphs
· are aware of the importance of argument, tone and function
· are able to work out the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary from context
· have confidence in their own ability and take chances
Which of the above do your students do well?
What activities do you use to develop these strategies?
INEFFECTIVE READERS
On the other hand, ineffective reading is often caused by:
· 'mouthing'
· word-by-word reading
· inappropriate translation
· inaccurate linguistic analysis
· paying attention to unfamiliar words which are not relevant to the purpose
of reading
· panic
and therefore these students do not take chances.
Which of the above to you see in your classes?
How do you help your students overcome these tendencies?
HOW DO WE READ?
Match the column on the left with the definition on the right and decide
which are most applicable to the above categories.
| Skimming | reading shorter texts to extract accurate detailed information |
| Scanning | quickly reading a text to get the gist of it |
| Extensive reading | quickly going through a text to find a particular piece of information |
| Intensive reading | reading longer texts, usually for pleasure |
WHAT SKILLS DO WE NEED TO READ SUCCESSFULLY?
Look at the following subskills, consider each at two different levels (e.g.
advanced and beginners) and then number the ten most important skills for
each level.
* Recognising the script of a language.
* Deducing the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items.
* Understanding explicitly stated information.
* Understanding conceptual meaning.
* Understanding the communicative values of sentences and utterances.
* Understanding relations within the sentence.
* Understanding relations between sentences through grammatical and lexical
cohesive devices.
* Interpreting text by going outside it.
* Identifying main points in a discourse.
* Extracting salient points to summarise.
* Basic reference skills (contents, index, abbreviations, ordering).
* Skimming.
* Scanning.
* Transcoding written information to tabular or diagram form and vice versa.
THE PROCESS OF READING SCHEMA THEORY
One of the most influential models of reading in recent years has been the
Psycholinguistic Model described by Goodman and drawing heavily on top-down
processing. It is based on a consideration of schema theory which says that
comprehension depends on the activation of schemata. These are pictures or
frameworks of a situation which help us to understand the situation. In other
words, as soon as we begin to read, we form a schema triggered by the title,
format, first sentence etc. and based upon our previous knowledge. This schema
will be reinforced, adapted or discarded as we continue to read. This model
has profound implications for the process of reading. It is essentially a
selective process which involves a minimal sampling of the text. The confirmation
of the schema chosen may render much of the language redundant.
BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING
This process reflects the old models of reading as a simple process of decoding
words into thoughts. However, it accepts that words must first be recognised
and, having been decoded, the thoughts must then be remembered. It is an approach
which works from the parts to the whole, building up gradually in a process
of growth.
TOP-DOWN PROCESSING
This model states that readers begin with expectations and ideas about a text,
based on its title, format and style, before they begin to look for words
that will substantiate or refute these expectations. It is an approach which
begins with a picture of the whole and deals with the parts in terms of this.
Are your students primarily top down or bottom up processors?
Or is there a healthy mixture? Why? Why not?
Should we make students aware of their own reading processes? Why? Why not?
How can an awareness of the theories above help us as teachers?
PROBLEMS IN READING
There are basically three positions in the literature of today.
1. The Processing Problem - argues that L2 learners may be proficient in the
language, but they still have problems reading. Therefore, the core of the
problem is the failure to transfer reading strategies from the L1 to the L2.
2. The Language Problem - states that L2 reading is very different from L1
reading. It argues that the L2 reader has problems with memory span, mistakes
are likely to lead to hesitation, and there is a possibility of L1 interference.
3. The Short Circuit Problem - aims to strike a balance between the first
two and states that L2 readers bring a great deal with them to help in the
reading process, but it concedes that the language problem is of fundamental
importance. In other words, good L1 readers are theoretically able to transfer
their reading skills, but when language competence is limited there is a short
circuit. There is no conclusive evidence for this theory as yet, but the idea
is intuitively appealing. Readers, who do not know enough of the language,
cannot transfer skills from their L1 because they need to be more proficient
in the L2 to activate the skill.
What problems do you find your classes have?
What activities do you use to overcome these problems?
Share your favourite and most successful reading classes.
THE THREE PHASES IN A READING LESSON
PRE-READING
* to introduce and stimulate interest in the topic
* to motivate students by providing a reason for reading
* to provide language preparation for the text
WHILE-READING
* to clarify content and vocabulary of the text
* to help students understand the writer's purpose
* to help students understand the structure of the text
POST-READING
* to consolidate and reflect upon what has been read
* to relate the text to the students' own knowledge/interests/views
* to provide a stimulus for other language activities
POSSIBLE STAGES OF A READING LESSON
Below you will see a number of possible stages for a reading lesson.
These stages are in a jumbled order. Please re-arrange the stages according
to what you consider to be an appropriate order. (Note that in any particular
lesson some of these stages might be omitted and/or other stages added.)
a Students ask the teacher about unfamiliar vocabulary.
b Students work very quickly in order to work out the answers to one or two
general questions.
c Students work out the meaning of selected words and expressions from the
context.
d Students predict the content of the text from the title/picture/first line.
e The teacher draws attention to some of the grammar in the text.
f Students complete a detailed true/false exercise.
g Students locate topic sentences in some paragraphs.
h Students discuss topics related to the content of the text.
i Students scan the text to pick out proper names.
ACTIVITIES FOR DEVELOPING READING SKILLS
- Preview/Predict/Anticipate
- Scanning
- Skimming
- Comprehension Questions (e.g. "wh-" questions)
- Jigsaw Reading (jumbled and re-order)
- Information Transfer (e.g. draw diagram/graph/map/plan; complete a table)
- Directions / Instructions (e.g. follow directions, complete a task, arrange
something)
- Cloze
- Disappearing Lexis
- C-Test
- Reference Identification (pronouns, anaphoric, cataphoric)
- Inference
- Write Headlines
- Write/Complete Summaries
- Make/Complete Notes (e.g. tree diagrams, mind maps)
- Integrated Skills activities (e.g. oral summary, paraphrase text, re-write
in own words)
SELECTING TEXTS
We should decide if we are going to use narrow-angle texts or wide-angle
texts before we look for a specific passage. Narrow-angle texts are those
which are drawn from the student's specialist field. They are prepared, authentic
and require intensive reading. They tend to be highly motivating, good for
vocabulary and integrate naturally with other class work. Wide-angle texts,
on the other hand, offer a greater range of choice and flexibility. They are
authentic, often require less preparation and can be used effectively with
extensive reading exercises. However, we need to know our students well to
choose appropriately. Studies have concluded that the teacher can encourage
effective reading through the careful selection of texts and setting of tasks.
Panic can be minimised through the use of concrete, realistic tasks and groupwork.
How do you select texts for your classes?
Which texts do you find work best?
Which texts do you find fall flat?
Are there any particular sources you find especially useful?
You could use the two lists below to jog your memory.
WHAT DO WE READ?
Tick the categories you feel apply to your students and number them
in order of importance. Add any further categories or examples you feel should
be included.
* Novels, literary texts (e.g. essays, biographies etc.)
* Plays
* Poems
* Letters (postcards, telegrams, notes)
* Newspapers and magazines (different articles and features)
* Reports, technical and specialised articles, pamphlets etc.
* Handbooks, textbooks, guidebooks
* Recipes
* Adverts, brochures, catalogues
* Puzzles, problems, rules for games
* Instructions, directions (e.g. how to use ..), notices, warnings, rules
and regulations, signs, forms, tickets, price lists, menus
* Comic strips, cartoons
* Statistics, diagrams, charts, tables, maps
* Telephone directories, dictionaries, phrase books, food labels
KEY QUESTIONS FOR READING TEACHERS
Here is a summary of key questions we need to ask ourselves as teachers.
· Why do people read?
· What do people read?
· Why do we teach reading?
· Why do students need to read?
· How do we read?
· What skills do students need in order to read effectively?
· What difficulties do students face when reading?
· How do we teach reading?
KSQ4R
This technique for teaching reading is based on a top-down processing
model and involves the following steps:
K for 'Knowledge of the World'. This means that
before reading a passage students should be given the chance to activate their
background knowledge of the topic.
S for 'Survey'. Students should look through
the passage to find out how long it is, what charts, pictures, headings etc.
it contains, and think about what they can learn from it, how useful the information
might be and how it relates to them and their class.
Q for 'Question'. Each heading is turned into
a question.
R for 'Read'. Students read purposefully to answer
the questions. They also underline the main ideas and put a question mark
beside any sentence they did not understand.
R for 'Recite'. After reading a paragraph, the
student covers it and checks if the main idea can be expressed in their own
words. If not, it is marked with a question mark to show rereading is necessary.
R for 'Review'. After finishing the passage,
the student looks back at the markings and reviews the main ideas noted. Any
sections question marked are reread.
R for 'Reflect'. After reading the whole passage,
the student reflects on how useful the information will be, paying attention
to the connection between the passage and the student's own knowledge.